Developing and Implementing National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan: Lessons from China

 

WANG Sung, WANG Xianpu, XIE Yan, (Chinese Academy of Sciences),
JIN Jianming (State Environment Protection Agency), CHEN Changdu (Peking University), WANG Zongyi (Beijing Academy of Science and Technology), and
QING Jianhua (State Forestry Administration)

 

SUMMARY

China is one of the earliest countries in the world ratifying the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992. It is also the earliest one starting with the formulation of its national action plan of biodiversity conservation in early 1990s which was finalized and officially released by the State Council.

Having endorsed and implemented for years, there is an urgent need to summarize the lessons learnt from the formulation and implementation of its BAP. As a member of CBD, it is also considered to be vital to exchange lessons learnt with other countries especially those neighboring countries in the region. The purpose is to promote an overall review of the existing BSAP, carry out the Sub-BSAP on specific themes, regions and taxa, as well as to strengthen the BSAP implementation by integrating BSAP with the state planning.

This report aims at to begin with this attempt rather than a completion of the review and presents views mainly from some of the former Expert Team of China's NBAP. Among those lessons learnt from the process of developing and implementing the NBAP, coordination among the various sectors, overcoming the sectoral barriers, improper administration and bureaucratic interference, shortage of accurate scientific data and information, gap of participation of some individual sectors, integrating conservation for economic development, etc. Are considered as the main points. Meanwhile, publicizing the NBAP, long-termed continuation of the organizing structure, monitoring and revision, financial support for implementation, strengthening scientific research and data collection, public awareness especially for decision makers, etc. are thought to be vital for up raising the function of the NBAP.

Since China's biodiversity is under the pressure from its huge population, rapid development and continuation of threats, and integrating NBAP with development planning is vital to ensure the sustainability. The follow-up action for the existing NBAP needs to be emphasized.

 

INTRODUCTION

A. Natural, Socio-economic and Political Features

China's biological diversity is of great importance for national economic development and has global significance. China's ecosystems range from tropical rain forests to tundra and from marine ecosystems to alpine meadows (Table 1 and Map, China's Bio-units). This ecosystem diversity makes China one of the world's three most plant-rich nations. Over half of all China's plants occur nowhere else on earth. One in eight of the world's mammals, birds and fishes are found in China. It is also a center for genetic variants of domesticated crops like rice and tea, and domesticated animals like chickens, pigs and ducks. However, these biological riches occur in a land of 1.2 billion people, consequently, over 15% of plants are threatened, many species of wildlife are endangered and important mammals like the Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) are now extinct within China (Biodiversity Committee, 1992).

China has recognized the economic and cultural importance of its biodiversity, and has taken steps to offset the many threats posed by a huge population and the demands and impacts of rapid economic growth. A number of measures have been taken to conserve biological resources and to establish sustainable patterns for their use. For example, China has been developing a national system of nature reserves over the last few decades. These protected areas already number over 1,000 including about 100 at the national level. By the early 1990's these reserves had covered 72 million ha or 7.2 % of the total land area. In addition, Chinese scientists have made a major effort to inventory the country's biodiversity, making collections of several million specimens, publishing hundreds of books and papers, preparing lists of endangered species (e.g., China Plant Red Data Book: Rare and Endangered Plants, 1992, and China Red Data Book of Endangered Animals, 4 vols., 1998-9), and publishing recommendations for action (e.g., Biodiversity in China, 1992).

Over the last two decades, China's government (on both the national and provincial levels) has enacted measures aimed at preserving the country's natural heritage. Many laws and regulations were passed to protect and control the use of living species (Table 2). Conservation and sustainable use policies were introduced by relevant organizations such as the Ministry of Sciences and Technology, National Scientific Foundation, and Chinese Academy of Sciences.

At the international level, China has also taken several important steps. China joined a number of international conventions and programs – such as UNESCO's Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB), the World Heritage Convention (WHC), RAMSAR Convention, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and the Migratory Bird Conventions. In 1992, China became one of the first six nations to ratify the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and to move ahead with its implementation even before the CBD came into force, by developing a National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) in 1994.

Over this same time span, China cooperated with many international organizations on biodiversity conservation – for example, WWF, IUCN, World Bank, UNDP, UNEP, GEF, McArthur Foundation and Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), and a number of bilateral cooperation activities were initiated. During early 1990s, the Chinese government created the China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development (CCICED) -- a high level vehicle for expanding international cooperation on environment and development and which makes specific recommendations to the State Council. One working group of CCICED has a specific focus on biodiversity -- the Biodiversity Working Group (BWG).

B. Institutional and Administrative Context

Through the 1990's there have been institutional changes made by the State Council that are of relevance to biodiversity management and it's implementation. The State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) was designated as the lead agency in coordinating and monitoring biodiversity conservation and in implementing the CBD. Accordingly, SEPA had key responsibility for developing the NBAP and in its implementation. A quick scan of the tables included in this paper will reveal the widespread involvement of many agencies and ministries throughout the provincial and national governmental levels.

Although laws that effect the country's biodiversity have been enacted since the inception of the People's Republic of China in 1949, in the last decade in particular, China has adopted a series of very significant laws and regulations for conserving biodiversity (Table 2).

C. Relevant Legal Procedures for Biodiversity Conservation

The tables in this report outline many key events, laws, regulations and licensing procedures that have had a part in the development of a comprehensive approach to the management of China's biological diversity. However, there are three in particular, of which we would here like to draw attention, because of their impact on the development of the NBAP.

The first involves environmental impact assessment. In 1986, China promulgated the “Administrative Rules of Environmental Protection for Construction Projects”, which regulates that any construction project that might have an impact on the environment should follow with a procedure of examination and approval of an environmental impact assessment.

The second involves the management of nature reserves and scenic spots. In 1994, China promulgated its “Regulations about Nature Reserves”, which laid out how nature reserves and scenic spots would be managed. This law specified (1) economic and technical policies, (2) administrative system, (3) establishment conditions, (3) application procedures, (4) the examination and approval processes, (5) nomenclature and internal composition, (6) authority to formulate technical criteria and standards, (7) responsibilities of administrative institutions, (8) administration measures and (9) penalties for violation for nature reserve management. However, it is increasingly felt that local legislation is required to either draw up regulations specially dealing with nature conservation or to include articles concerning biodiversity conservation related with local legislation in the light of local needs and characteristics.

The third regulation was that of the “Temporary Regulation on Management of Scenic Sites”. This law, issued in 1985, identified various systems and measures for protection, planning, construction and management of scenic sites at various levels. Similar provisions can be found in some local regulations.

As the major legislation for the conservation of species diversity, the Wildlife Protection Law was approved and launched in 1988 after a long term of preparation as well as consultation and coordination among those related governmental sectors. The involvement of the Chinese Academy of Sciences was functional especially for those technical issues including the preparation and judgement of the Key Protected Wildlife Species List which was officially issued in 1989 when approved by the State Council. In addition, Regulations on implementation of the Wildlife Protection Law for those terrestrial and aquatic species were further announced by the Ministry of Forestry and Agriculture accordingly in 1992 and 1993.

A number of laws and regulations concerning biodiversity in various aspects were further announced in 1980s and 1990s which have been functioning in different fields regarding species, ecosystems or/and genetic biodiversity. Local legislation on biodiversity conservation was also initiated in the past two decades. (Tables 2 & 3)

D. Scope and Purpose

It is major focus of this paper to lay out the historical, political, and socioeconomic factors that played a part in the development of China's National Biodiversity Action Plan. We hope that by this review of the status of the NBAP, and a look at the strengths and weaknesses of its development and implementation, lessons will be learned that will be useful to others in the management of their biodiversity policy. First, we review the background and origin of the NBAP (section II); then we present some details about the proposal (sections III, IV, and V). Finally, we present in our "lessons learned" and "recommendation" sections our reflections on the process and the action plan in general.

CHINA'S NBAP: ORIGIN AND BACKGROUND

A. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1992.

Prior to the UNCED, China actively participated in the inter-governmental negotiation and promoted the formulation of the Draft Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Former Chinese Premier Li Peng signed the CBD at the UNCED. In the same year, the CBD was approved by the 28th conference of seventh China People's Congress (CPC). A year later (1993), China ratified the CBD and became one of the first six contracting countries of CBD.

China began to implement the CBD immediately after UNCED. In 1992, the 23rd meeting of the State Council Environment Protection Committee decided that National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA, now known as SEPA) would be the lead agency for implementation of the CBD. Early in 1993, a CBD Implementation Coordinating Group was formed. The Group is convened by NEPA and had representation from the Ministries of (1) Foreign Affairs, (2) Finance, (3) Science and Technology, (4) Forestry (now State Forestry Bureau) (5) Agriculture, (6) Education, and (7) Construction. Also represented were the (8) State Planning Commission (SPC), (9) State Oceanic Administration (SOA), (10) State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, (11) Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), (12) State Patent Administration, (13) Ministry of Public Security and the (14) Customs Administration.

Meanwhile, different sectors and institutions took various biodiversity conservation initiatives. The State Council established the China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development (CCICED) in 1992. CCICED has a number of working groups, including the Biodiversity Working Group (BWG) comprising Chinese and international experts. Since its establishment, the BWG has made a number of significant recommendations annually for biodiversity conservation balancing the global perspective with Chinese reality.

In 1990, as the pioneer of scientific research in the field of biodiversity conservation, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) also established a Biodiversity Working Group aimed at promoting and organizing biodiversity programs in CAS as well as in the State Science and Technology Commission and the National Science Foundation. The first symposium on biodiversity conservation in China sponsored by CAS's Biodiversity Working Group was held in March 1990 (Wang, 1990). The symposium brought the idea of biodiversity and its conservation to China for the first time and its Proceedings was widely distributed to governors, governmental agencies and institutions. This Proceedings together with the Chinese version of Conserving the World's Biodiversity caused apparently the public awareness of biodiversity and its conservation for the first time in China.

Later a larger CAS Biodiversity Committee was established by reforming and expanding the CAS Biodiversity Working Group. With the outcome of many significant research programs organized and undertaken by CAS, the first magazine titled as "Chinese Biodiversity" and a series of books were published. A number of domestic and international seminars and workshops on biodiversity were sponsored.

During the early 1990's countrywide studies were started to make a compilation of China's biodiversity. The first publication, Biodiversity in China - Status and Conservation Needs, was issued at the UNCED highlighting the status and conservation needs of China's biodiversity. This was followed by the book which was actually the first attempt of country study influenced by the ongoing work of WCMC's Global Biodiversity. The result of this research was published by CAS in 1993 titled as Chinese Biodiversity - Status and Conservation Strategy. In mid 1990s, NEPA initiated a GEF supported project on China Biodiversity Country Study and published in 1998. Both studies describe the status of China's biodiversity, evaluates the its value and benefits, estimates the cost of implementing the CBD and raises the necessity of strengthening biodiversity conservation and sustainable development and of capacity building of the state in biodiversity conservation.

During this same time period, many universities and colleges set up research centers specializing in biodiversity, which carried out research and education in the field of biodiversity conservation. In early 1990s, the China Biodiversity Conservation Fund (CBCF) was set up based on the former Milu Foundation. This represented a significant change in conservation efforts from a focus on individual species to the preservation of critical habitats and ecosystems. One of the efforts made by CBCF was the case study on effective management of an ecosystem demonstration area in Huairou, Beijing--which greatly push forward the biodiversity conservation in Beijing.

Many relevant institutions set up data and information management networks during the 1990's. As one of the state key priority projects in the Eighth Five-year plan, CAS initiated a five-year biodiversity programme consisting of a series of key projects, such as setting up the Biodiversity Research Information Management (BRIM) including China Biodiversity Information System. As a part of the plan, the Endangered Species Information System has been further greatly expanded and improved as the China Species Information System since 1996 and is nowadays the largest one in terms of vertebrate species information system in China. In addition, as one of the 10 pilot projects in China, the Biodiversity Database was also set up headed by NEPA in 1991. Data management guides were formulated, including a management plan of state biodiversity data and information. These guides promoted relevant agencies to share and exchange information that would enhance the establishment of a biodiversity information network and an international biodiversity information exchange system.

B. Creation of the National Biodiversity Action Plan.

The roots of NBAP originated before the CBD as a part of the Global Environmental Facility's (GEF) China Biodiversity Project started in 1991 and the project itself was initiated in 1992. The project set out concrete objectives, priority actions and research projects and listed priority species and ecosystems to be protected.

The former State Council Environment Protection Committee (SEPC), under the auspices of the State Council, coordinated efforts to solve important environmental issues in China by providing guiding principles and evaluating relevant laws and policies. Because the National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA, now upgraded as SEPA) was responsible for managing and evaluating biodiversity conservation, it was appointed to be the lead agency in coordinating efforts for drafting the National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP). For this purpose, a NBAP Leading Group was founded with the Deputy Administrator of NEPA being appointed as its Head. Meanwhile, an Expert Team was also appointed taking the responsibility of planning, preparation of outlines, compilation and editing of the text. Well experienced scientists in the field of ecology, zoology, botany from China working closely with conservation were involved in the group.

Among those governmental sectors and institutions, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) was heavily involved in the planning process. The Ministry of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture, State Oceanic Administration, and Ministry of Construction are responsible for administration and management of biodiversity conservation, with differing emphases and concerns. In addition, the State Science and Technology Commission, State Planning Commission, and Ministry of Finance participated in the planning process that would be the main domestic financial resources for the implementation and enforcement of the NBAP.

An International Advisory Group was specially formed to oversee the drafting of the plan. This was proved to be vital especially linking the international approach with the realities in China.

Finally, in 1994, China's NBAP was officially formulated and launched by the State Council. It represented a joint effort of many government agencies and ministries and required cooperation from both national and international community.

Promoted by this initiative, during the process of NBAP planning, other strategies and action plans were also started accordingly. China's Agenda 21 was officially adopted in 1994. The action plan of Marine biodiversity (1992) focused on marine organisms and their distribution. Action plans for agriculture (1993), forests (1995), and Urban Flora (1994) followed. Individual species action plans were also developed (e.g., Panda in 1993, Crested Ibis, South China Tiger in early 1990s). A complete chronological list can be found in Table 4.

4. National Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan

A. Scope and Objectives

The overall goal and operational objectives were determined through intensive discussions among scientists and representatives from participating organizations and were defined as follows:

• Set priorities and identify feasible measures to stop the destruction and loss of biodiversity and habitats;
• Over the long term, save endangered species, conserve living resources, use natural resources rationally and sustainably, and restore ecosystems as much as possible; and
• Offer scientific assistance in rural development such that it agrees with biodiversity conservation.

After the draft of NBAP came out, a number of workshops were held. The participants in these workshops were drawn mostly from three groups: (1) those experts who worked on the NBAP, (2) advisers from the international community, and (3) governmental staff responsible for conservation efforts. Hot spots of tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate forest, grassland, and mountains, wetland, aquatic, coastal and marine ecosystems were identified with the following objectives:

These workshops agreed on several main issues where the NBAP should focus. First, the study of China's biodiversity with emphasis on evaluation of its status and economic value should be strengthened. A bio-geographical system needs to be formulated to serve biodiversity conservation.

Second, it is necessary to set up a classification system and network of national parks and reserves. This will serve to evaluate the distribution of reserves and national parks, their management and representation, and whether they function according to the biosphere reserve model. At the same time, it is also necessary to identify and set up new reserves, so that the goal of 10% of the state territory within protected areas could be met.

Third, the NBAP must be focused on the conservation and continued study of the key protected species in China. Their study and protection needs to be enhanced through appropriate in-situ and ex-situ measures. An integrated conservation and development plan is also recommended.

Fourth, it is also needed to conserve biodiversity in-situ outside reserves, through eco-agriculture, special protection of coastal and marine ecosystems, and demonstration biodiversity management areas.

Fifth, an information and monitoring network for biodiversity conservation must be developed. It is important to improve regional information and monitoring network for biodiversity conservation. This would be done by the collection of data of environmental and social significance and establishing a monitoring technique. This would facilitate the establishment of the state information and monitoring network for biodiversity conservation.

And lastly, more effort needs to be made to coordinate biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. This can be done by facilitating cooperation between local governments and communities and by combining biodiversity conservation with local community development through cooperative management and benefit sharing. The goal is to establish a system of biodiversity management zoning. Once it is set up, continuous effort is required to consolidate and improve the system.

B. NBAP Development

The preparation of the NBAP was initially guided by the CBD. Numerous other international documents were also used as important references. The expert team based the plan’s outline and the evaluation of present status and needs primarily on the CBD. The International Advisory Group and the World Bank’s project manager were also consulted.

The process has involved wide national and international participation through a series of workshops, working groups and expert advisory groups. The first BAP Workshop, in February 1992, established criteria for determining the biodiversity significance of species and ecosystems, nationally and internationally, and the priority for their conservation in China. The second BAP Workshop, in November 1992, assembled for the first time national and international experts on Chinese biodiversity. The participants reviewed the state of knowledge about biodiversity in China that would be necessary for the action plan, developed detailed lists of Chinese ecosystems and species of national and international significance, and assigned priorities for needed conservation action.

During the four-week drafting session held in February 1993, the results of November workshop and the separate drafts that had been prepared by each member of the Leading Group, and combined these into a single, consolidated draft. The draft was reviewed and amended at the BAP Workshop in April 1993 and further reviewed and revised by national and international experts and has subsequently been approved by Government.

The participating institutions each worked out tentative action plans, paying special attention to their function and responsibilities. These action plans were compiled into a first draft of the NBAP through a series of symposia and workshops. The draft NBAP was divided into four main parts, i.e. Biodiversity status, Conservation status, Objectives and actions, and Implementation measures, each being reviewed in group sessions. Three workshops were held to discuss and revise the whole text of the NBAP, which was then distributed to relevant institutions and interested parties for comment.

Soon after the NBAP was developed, a UNEP supported project began a Biodiversity Country Study. Disagreements arose over this initiative - some questioned whether a Country Study was needed when a NBAP had been prepared. It was agreed that the Country Study would be an overall review of the status of biodiversity with much greater analysis of threats and existing conservation effort and achievements, as well as defining further measures and actions needed. The NBAP and the UNEP Country Study were viewed as sister programs with differing primary focuses. The UNEP Country Study was finally completed and published in 1998.

NEPA had the lead role in organizing and coordinating in drafting the NBAP. However, many other institutions played critical roles in the development of the plan because of their respective responsibilities. CAS played the leading role in the study of biological resources. It possesses the most comprehensive information on this topic and provides scientific advice to the State Council. The Ministry of Forestry (MOF) manages the natural reserves, governs the import and export of flora and fauna, implements the Wildlife Protection Law, and formulates regulations for conserving forest ecosystems. The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) is in charge of protecting agricultural and grassland ecosystems and freshwater and marine fisheries as well as other aquatic species. The Ministry of Finance allocates funds for biodiversity conservation activities. The Ministry of Public Security assists in implementing Wildlife Protection Law and Environment Law. It also acts in enforcing any law relating to illegal trade, hunting, and destruction of wildlife and habitats.

The Ministry of Construction oversees zoos, botanical gardens, and national parks and plays an important role in both in situ and ex situ protection and captive breeding programs, however, only representatives of the departments in charge of zoos and botanical gardens participated in the NBAP process. No representatives from the Ministry’s department of national parks (scenic areas) were involved.

In addition to the ministries, other agencies played key roles in the development of the plan because of their roles in land management. The State Oceanic Administration (SOA) oversees the management and use of the marine ecosystem. The State Planning Commission incorporates biodiversity conservation into the state annual development plans and long-term strategies. And the State Science and Technology Commission is in charge of science policy and scientific research activities at the state level.

Participating organizations and experts presented their ideas and comments at different phases of the preparation and revision process. The ideas and opinions of university-based scientists and grassroots groups were collected and considered in the drafting process of the NBAP. However, only governmental agencies and experts contributed directly to formulation of the NBAP. Other sectors, such as business and local communities were not directly involved in the process.

During NBAP development, conservation issues were publicized in local communities and conservation awareness was raised. Relevant government agencies began to pay more attention to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. But funding constraints limited the overall effective response. In any case, many local government agencies ended up emphasizing development rather than conservation. Since they knew little about the relationship between biodiversity conservation and development, conflicts often arose between local government and conservation agencies that had to be resolved by higher authorities.

Under China's current situation, the most appropriate model for implementation of the NBAP was considered to be one supervising agency for coordination, with different local agencies taking the practical biodiversity conservation and management actions. In other words, one coordinating agency should be authorized by the state to work with different sectors, local government, NGOs, and the private sectors to enlist their close cooperation and participation in biodiversity conservation. They could share in the management and the benefits of biodiversity conservation. This model, as recommended by NBAP, has not yet been put in place in China.

C. On the Relationship with Development Planning

As one of the follow up actions of UNCED, the State Science and Technology Commission (SSTC) and the State Planning Commission (SPC) were designated to organize and draw up the “Agenda 21 for China”. This has been followed by the preparation of sector Agenda 21s or Action Plans, including coverage of biodiversity in nature reserves, wetlands, agriculture, marine and coastal areas, zoos and botanic gardens, as well as traditional medicine.

Elements of the NBAP have been picked up in many national research and development plans. In selecting the country’s five-year plan research projects, the SSTC and SPC, major funding bodies for long term research and development programs, considered the NBAP. The projects on biodiversity information management, conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, the preservation of genetic diversity, and ex situ conservation of endangered species of animals and plants are part of the key research programs in CAS’ Eighth Five-year Program and the SSTC. The National Science Foundation further supported the programs under the Ninth Five-year plan. UNDP/GEF and World Bank provided assistance for some of these programs. The Chinese Government has provided billions during the last decade for forest conservation.

As biodiversity conservation and sustainable development is the concern of every citizen, it is necessary to get support from society as a whole. Only when it is listed formally in the state economy and social development plans, will it receive adequate attention from all sectors and will conservation objectives be achieved. Agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fisheries, water management, medicine, construction, transport, finance and commerce all should play an important role in biodiversity conservation and vigorously take up their task. This requirement should be reflected in economic development plans and addressed in related laws and regulations. All resource development should continue on this basis.

But there is a challenge in defining the benefits and economic incentives for biodiversity conservation. People working at the front--such as owners and potential protectors of resources--usually do not receive any compensation for taking conservation actions. Direct economic benefits from other resource uses maybe lost and living standards may degrade because of well-meaning conservation efforts. The globalization of the economy often works against local conservation efforts. Market forces are causing accelerated pressure on biodiversity resources. If the owners are not compensated properly, conservation objectives will not be achieved. Conservation should not be the sole responsibility of local people who depend on local resources for their basic needs. Inequities quickly arise where one (usually distant) community becomes rich through aggressive exploitation of biodiversity resources, while another community (usually local) becomes poorer by conserving their environment.

Since biodiversity conservation is a crosscutting theme, all government sectors should make their contribution to the formulation and implementation of the NBAP. For example, local governments should consider the NBAP when making their development plans. NBAP strongly recommended that biodiversity action plans be prepared at provincial level. However, as of this writing, no province has taken this step. It is quite questionable whether those governors of provinces or towns have been aware of the existing NBAP or biodiversity conservation. This is not surprising because there was little consultation at the provincial level during NBAP formulation, and also there was less publicizing of the NBAP. Nevertheless, some sectoral or thematic biodiversity action plans have been prepared.

D. Implementation

A legislative framework for biodiversity conservation has, in principle, been set in place. This legal system includes articles from the Constitution, related laws, administrative regulations, local regulations and laws and rules. The NBAP is a key part of the policy framework to conserve China’s biodiversity.

China has achieved a great deal in biodiversity management through in-situ and ex-situ conservation, scientific research, public awareness and legislation. However, biodiversity conservation and sustainable use practices are still far from satisfactory due to the lack of a coordinating national agency and sufficient funding. There are 1,149 reserves, covering 8% of the nation, more than 170 zoos and animal breeding centers, 110 botanical parks and tree parks, and dozens of natural history museums and collections. However, effective management is lacking or inefficient because of shortage of well-trained staffs and necessary funding. Some forest parks and scenic areas for tourism are not included in the list of protected areas, and were usually excluded in conservation planning or activities due mainly to the sectoral barriers and conflicts

The main mechanisms and tools being used for the implementation of biodiversity management include:

• Reserves for in-situ conservation: under sectors of Forestry, SEPA, Agriculture, Oceanic, Geology, and CAS;
• Zoos & Safari Parks for public education and breeding of endangered species: under Ministry of Construction, Ministry of Forestry and local government;
• Breeding centers mainly for breeding threatened species: under Forestry and Construction;
• Gene Bank: under Agriculture and CAS; mainly for crops, but the latter is for endangered wildlife species;
• Compensation measures (e.g., Compensation for stopping logging of natural forests, restoration of natural habitat, and wetland protection);
• International cooperation

E. Monitoring and Follow-Up

It was proposed that the monitoring mechanism will determine whether allocated funds are used for the proposed actions and whether laws and regulations are consistent with actions proposed in the plan.

Ministries and government agencies will implement their portions of the NBAP. At the state level, SEPA has taken over the responsibility for monitoring, evaluating the actions, and coordinating those sectors responsible for various aspects of biodiversity conservation. In the past, the State Council Environmental Protection Committee was in charge of evaluating and coordinating overall implementation of NBAP; however, it is not the case at present.

Environment monitoring stations focusing on pollution status have been set up in all provinces of China. A similar network is suggested for monitoring the health of ecosystems. Presently the experimental field station network under CAS and some reserves are conducting this form of monitoring, and, if authorized and strengthened, it could function as a national ecosystem-monitoring network. But there are no standard indicators and system of management and reporting so that monitoring results influence the planning and decision making process. The information gained is also fragmented. Although the BWG conducted some monitoring and evaluation, the system needs to be enhanced.

China submitted a ‘national report’ to CBD COP 4 in Bratislava including a chapter on the NBAP. The formulation process and its main objectives and essential actions were highlighted, but it could not be considered as a comprehensive review NBAP implementation. No form review of that kind has been undertaken. As stated in the COP 4 report, the NBAP set out objectives for seven priority areas and 26 action options. According to the importance, urgency and feasibility of conservation, eighteen projects were identified for immediate implementation. Priority protected ecosystems and priority protected species were also identified in the NBAP. Therefore an initial framework for evaluation and revision of the Plan is in place, but as yet, no commitment made to undertake such a review.

V. LESSONS LEARNED

A. Lessons Learned during the development of NBAP

Initially, it was suggested that an expert team from various disciplines and different parts of the country should prepare the NBAP. In addition, some international experts with extensive knowledge of China were to be involved. The team would have assessed the status and problems of biodiversity and set priorities objectively and scientifically. Furthermore, at regular intervals, representatives from various sectors would be invited to participate in formulation, by providing views and information and comments on draft material. However, this approach was not followed. Instead, the project was conducted more through formal administrative than scientific channels by asking each sector to send officially their representatives to participate in the NBAP preparation. There were also conflicts caused by improper administration and bureaucratic interference while the roles of the Expert Team and views of experts were not adequately considered. In addition, the different opinions between the World Bank and the Chinese counterparts in administering the NBAP project caused confusion, which could have been dispelled if the Expert Team had met more regularly and played its role as guide and arbiter properly.

Because of the administrative approach, conflicts arose among different sectors in preparing the NBAP, particularly in the process of identifying those priority areas linked to fund allocation in future implementation. This problem was solved, to some extent, through compromises reached by the Leading Group and/or through the Expert Team.

Among other difficulties, the frequent change of personnel within agencies, during revisions of the plan also created much confusion. Those changes caused inconsistencies from version of the NBAP to the next.

From a technical point of view, the lack of accurate scientific data and information, especially in the form of a national biodiversity database, made it difficult to get a clear picture of the current status of ecosystems and species, and consequently to set rational priorities for action. Three international workshops held during various NBAP phases proved useful in listening to experts' suggestions and recommendations.

Although the Ministry of Construction sent representatives to participate the formulation of NBAP, the appropriate departments were not always involved. Given its overall responsibilities, the sections that are most involved with biodiversity issues are the sections dealing with zoos, botanical gardens, and national parks and should play an important role in both in situ and ex situ conservation. However, no representatives from the Ministry's department of national parks (scenic areas) took part. It was a gap in the consideration of the protected area issues in the Plan. The reasons for this oversight were mainly due to inappropriate understanding and in-sector coordinating.

The main obstacle faced in NBAP formulation was the lack of awareness concerning the significance of biodiversity conservation for economic development. The belief of most administrative agencies was that biodiversity conservation was in direct conflict with economic development--which had the higher priority. They were not as aware of the long-term benefits of biodiversity conservation to sustainable economic development. Also there was little understanding of the potential contribution of economic measures to biodiversity conservation. The underlying assumption was that natural resources are free goods that can be used without cost or paying compensation.

Many projects proceeded without consideration of the economic costs of environment degradation and protection. Many seemingly beneficial and profitable projects would not be cost-effective if all affects on the environment and biodiversity resources were accounted for. Many activities that utilize natural resources receive direct economic gain for the selling of those resources, but do not have to pay for the degradation of the future use of those resources. Examples of this may be logging of natural forests, farming steep slopes and grasslands, stocking lakes for farming purposes, exploitation of plants for traditional Chinese medicine, harvesting of wild animals, inshore fisheries and introduction of alien species--all of which can have serious impacts on reduction of native biodiversity.

Of special ongoing concern may be the lack of awareness by the central government, which still does not include allocations for biodiversity conservation in the state budget. Various sectors make provision for biodiversity conservation within their own discretional funds but these relatively small allocations do not meet the need.

B. Lessons Learned during NBAP Implementation

The NBAP is a long-term program, which needs to be carried out as a permanent part of government business. However, there has not been a review of the development and implementation of NBAP. One reason has been uncertainty over whether or not to continue the NBAP Leading Group and Expert Team. Both these bodies ceased to function after the NBAP was launched. Also, the CBD Coordinating Group has focused on CBD implementation in general rather than having specific responsibility for NBAP implementation. The NBAP requires regular review and revision but to date there has been little follow up.

The NBAP should be implemented under the coordination of a state-leveled supervising agency such as the former State Council Environmental Protection Committee as recommended in the plan. Yet, SEPA unlike its predecessor, the State Council Environmental Protection Commission, does not operate under the Council, which has made effective coordination of NBAP implementation difficult. SEPA lacks the necessary authority. Thus, elevating coordination responsibilities to a higher administrative level still need to be considered.

When the NBAP was launched, a detailed national implementation plan was needed as an operational framework for implementation by all arms of government. This was not prepared, therefore each sector implements the NBAP separately based on its own interpretation of priorities, focus, and financial situation. There has been little coordination against an agreed annual plan, especially in cross-sectoral activities, monitoring and evaluation, exchange of experiences, and allocation of funding.

Improvement of legislation is vital for implementation of the NBAP. For instance, there is an urgent need to revise the existing laws and to develop new laws or regulations to conserve species diversity, to control invasive species, improper introduction of species, animal welfare, in situ conservation of natural ecosystems and species diversity, and to deal with sustainable use of biodiversity. Legislative provisions for strategic planning of protected areas is needed to improve the existing protected areas system and its management.

Insufficient financial support is another basic problem in NBAP implementation. More funds should be allocated through the State budget to biodiversity conservation. Also increased support from individual government agencies, NGOs, the private sector and innovative forms of financing needs to be explored.

Public education and publicizing NBAP implementation should be strengthened. Most forms of communication activities relating to the plan ceased once it was prepared. Effective implementation of the NBAP depends on a thorough knowledge of the importance of biodiversity resources and their management to long-term sustainable economic development. Yet, government officials and enterprise managers lack appreciation or understanding of their critical role in achieving conservation and sustainable use objectives.

Although considerable effort has gone into biodiversity conservation education, there is still a big gap between what was recommended in the NBAP and what has been achieved--relevant education and training material are inadequate. NGOs, through their conservation education programs, have the capacity to mobilise youth and the general public to assist the government in biodiversity conservation. They should be given more support and incentives to play a greater role. A long-term education program should be mounted for the public that includes decision-makers, governmental staff and the private sector.

Implementation of the CBD and NBAP should be based on scientific data and information. Most protected areas, remaining forest blocks, new plantations, marine areas and rural habitats lack any form of biodiversity inventory on which to base sound management strategies. Sites for which data do exist, have in most cases, been greatly transformed since the original inventories were compiled. Much of the previously collected information is out of date or taxonomically imprecise. Moreover, because of sectoral barriers, the existing information on taxonomy, distribution, and habitat is not readily available, nor shared, and has not been fully utilised. Chinese science universities do not have special taxonomy and field biology curricula. The shortage of taxonomy and field specialists is a key problem facing biodiversity studies in the country and NBAP implementation.

VI. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE IMPACT OF THE NBSAP PROCESS

Recommendation No. 1. Undertake a thorough review of the NBAP: As the first step, an overall evaluation of the formulation, implementation and impact of the existing NBAP should be carried out. Questionnaires could be used to disseminate to all levels of government and relevant agencies. The responses could be used to determine the nature and focus of further consultations including specific evaluations, seminars and workshops.

Recommendation No. 2. Prepare a biodiversity strategy: Revision to the existing NBAP to a state biodiversity strategy and action plan is vital for China to fill the gap between strategy and action. China initiated the formulation of its NBAP when the CBD was still being negotiated. At that time the emphasis was on setting priorities for immediate conservation actions rather than determining the broad policy framework for the action plan. China needs to build on more than five years of NBAP implementation experience in defining a national strategy setting out comprehensive policies for implementing the CBD and providing the necessary guidance for extending action to the sectors and provinces.

Recommendation No. 3. Introduce a National Biodiversity Act: When completed, the strategy should be converted into legislation through a National Biodiversity Act. The CBD provides a comprehensive approach to biodiversity management, which needs to be reflected in a National Biodiversity Act, and in provincial legislation. Such legislation should incorporate new policy measures for implementing the CBD, including biodiversity conservation, sustainable use of biological resources, and the equitable distribution of benefits arising from such use.

Recommendation No. 4. Ensure adequate financing: The means for providing adequate resources for implementation should be included in the Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, drawing on a wide range of funding mechanisms (ranging from admission fees to special taxes on natural resource use). Funding to biodiversity conservation should be itemized in the state annual fiscal plan.

Recommendation No. 5. Prepare Regional BAPs: Many of the key actions in implementing the CBD need to take place at the provincial level, reflecting regional differences in biodiversity and decentralised responsibilities for resource management The BWG recommended a program to prepare biodiversity strategies and action plans at the provincial level. For example, one might cover certain provinces or bio-geologically significant regions, or base them on China's bioregions (Figure 1). These regional plans should be very practical with concrete objectives and operational programs. They should define the roles for the various economic sectors, as well as outline the major activities needed to implement the CBD at the provincial level. Regional BAPs are of great importance in a big country such as China.

Preparation of the plans could be led by the Provincial Planning Commission and based on broad consultation with, and active participation of all relevant sectors (including the Provincial departments of forestry, agriculture, fisheries, marine affairs, tourism, science and technology, transport, energy, trade and education, in addition to the Provincial Environmental Protection Agency and private enterprise).

While provinces would be free to address the biodiversity issues they consider of highest priority, the SEPA should provide common guidelines to ensure adequate coverage and common approaches. The provincial strategies and action plans should reach the county and township levels. Each strategy/action plan should include a protected area system plan, linkages to key economic sectors, a funding strategy that draws on a wide range of funding mechanisms and financial instruments, and any necessary changes in legislation. Compensation and benefit sharing at local level should be ensured.

The provincial BAPs would set out the major policy directions for the province to ensure that biological resources are used sustainably and continue to play a critical role in the economic and social welfare of local people. During the process of development of regional or local BAPs, the BWG could play the role of advisor to the provincial biodiversity planning process, providing technical and policy advice on request.

Recommendation No. 6. Extend the coverage and management of protected areas to provincial level: China’s protected area system is extensive and growing quickly, but a more comprehensive approach is needed to ensure that all key habitats are covered, that the protected areas fit within a larger bio-regional land-use plan, and that major management issues are clearly identified. This will require a greater role and responsibility at provincial-level.

Recommendation No. 7. Prepare a comprehensive implementation plan: A clear implementation plan must be prepared following the formulation and promulgation of the NBAP. Human and financial resources should be channeled to the highest priority projects, relating, for example to extending the system and management of different types of reserves, forest parks and national parks. Administrative responsibilities should be clearly defined and budgets set accordingly. All implementation initiatives should be under unified coordination but managed separately. Biodiversity management regions should also be established with dynamic and flexible management that can adapt to local situations.

Recommendation No. 8. Establish a National Co-ordinating body for Biodiversity: Biodiversity conservation involves all sectors, which means there may be conflicts between different sectors over conservation and development initiatives. Factors dealing with tradition and improper division of responsibilities within institutions have led to the failure of relevant sectors to co-operate with each other over conservation initiatives, a situation which needs to be improved.

The NBAP requires a nation-wide co-ordinating institution to ensure its effective implementation. In the short term, the capacity of SEPA to manage implementation of the NBAP needs to be strengthened. Biodiversity is a complicated issue that cannot be the responsibility of any one agency. Therefore, the goal should be to set up a national coordinating body under the State Council to supervise and coordinate implementation.

A biodiversity conservation body at the national level would co-ordinate all agencies concerned with the use and conservation of biodiversity resources. The body would be the lead implementation agency for the CBD and NBAP. This co-ordinating body should have legal, political and financial authority over nation-wide biodiversity activities. It should be responsible for guiding and encouraging biodiversity conservation in China through policy-making and planning. Building on China’s NBAP, the co-ordinating body should oversee the preparation of China’s Biodiversity Strategy, which would establish the main policy directions for implementation of the CBD nation-wide.

In addition to the CBD, many other international conventions relate to the conservation of natural resources and ecosystems, covering trade in endangered animals and plants, wetland conservation, migratory species, whaling, combating desertification, world heritage, migratory species, climate change and the conservation of marine life. Their implementation involves different sectors and proper coordination between sectors is vital.

The national biodiversity planning and coordinating body should, as an early priority, work with relevant agencies to bring together the several action plans, either existing or under development, which relate to biodiversity. These should be reviewed as part of the process to produce an authoritative National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.

Recommendation No. 9. Develop Follow-up thematic action plans: As the follow-up to the NBAP, it is vital to initiate action plans for important taxa of Chinese fauna and flora, such as Primates, Deer, Bovines, Wild cats, Bats, River Dolphin, Panda, Crested ibis, Cranes, Pheasants and Turtles. These action plans could be simultaneously carried out with the China Red Data Books and Red Lists in cooperation with the Species Survival Commission of IUCN.

It is also important to prepare thematic action plans covering critical ecosystems and conservation issues, such as forests & reforestation, wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs, grasslands; invasive species, the national system of protected areas, and ex-situ conservation and captive breeding.

VII. References

Biodiversity Committee/CAS 1992. Biodiversity in China, Status and Conservation Needs. Wang Sung (ed.) Science Press, Beijing & N.Y.

Chen, L., X. Wang, S. Wang (ed.) 1993 Chinese Biodiversity - Status and Conservation Strategy. Science Press, Beijing. (in Chinese)

Institute of Botany, CAS, 1992, China Plant Red Data Book - Rare and Endangered Plants, Science Press, Beijing & New York.

MacKinnon, John & Nigel Hicks, 1996 Wild China, New Holland Ltd. WCMC. 1992. Global Biodiversity. Cambridge.

MacKinnon, John, Meng Sha, et al., 1996. A Biodiversity Review of China, WWF-Int’l, WWF China Programme, Hong Kong.

Ministry of Forestry 1995 China's Agenda 21 -- Forestry Action Plan, China Forestry Press, Beijing.

Ministry of Agriculture 1996 China Biodiversity Action Plan in Agricultural Departments, China Agriculture Press, Beijing.

National Environmental Protection Agency. 1987. China Conservation Strategy. China Environmental Science Press, Beijing.

National Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. China Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan. China Environmental Science Press, Beijing.

National Environmental Protection Agency et al. 1998. China Biodiversity Country Study, China Environmental Science Press, Beijing.

State Oceanic Administration 1996 China's Ocean Agenda 21, China Marine Press, Beijing.

State Planning Commission, State Science and Technology Commission, et al. China's Agenda 21 -- A White Paper on Population, Environment and Development in the 21^st Century, China Environmental Sciences Press, Beijing.

Wang Sung (ed.) 1990. Proceedings of the Symposium on Biological Diversity, 29-31 March, 1990, Beijing. Biodiversity Working Group/Bur. Bio-Sci. & Tech., CAS. Beijing. (in Chinese)

WCMC. 1992. Global Biodiversity. Chapman & Hall, London, Glasgow, New York, Tokyo, Melbourne, Madras

 

VIII. MAP & TABLES

 

Table1: China's Bio-units, from John MacKinnon, 1996

01a	South China Mountains
01b	Sichuan Basin
01c	South China Hills/Plains
06a	South China
06b	Hainan Island
10c	Indochina Transition Zone
14a	Changbai Mountains
14b	Da Hinggan Mountains
15a	Yangtze Plain
15b	North China Plain
15c	Yangtze Hills
15d	Qinling Mts
15e	Eastern Loess Plateau
15f	Northeast China Plain
C1-	Northwest China
C2a	Taklimakan Desert
C2b	Gobi Desert
C2c	Western Loess Plateau
C2d	Qaidam Pendi
C3a	Tibetan Plateau East
C3b	Tibetan Plateau Northeast
C3c	Tibetan Plateau Central
C3d	Tibetan Plateau West
C3e	Kunlun/Altun Mts.
C3f	Tibetan Plateau Southwest
29-	Junggar Pendi
30-	Eastern Steppe
35-	Altay Mts.
36-	Tianshan Mts.
38d	Southeast Tibet
38e	Himalayas
27-	Taiwan
39a	Yunnan Plateau
39b	Southwest Sichuan
39c	West Sichuan Mountains
39d	Liangshan Mts.
39e	Sichuan Transition Zone
39f	Hengduan Mts.
06c	Xisha - Nansha Archipelago

 

Map: China's Bio-units, from John MacKinnon, 1996

Table 2. Major laws, measures and regulations in China for Conserving Biodiversity.

Constitution 1982	Laid down by the Notional People’s Congress, is the fundamental law of China and provides a legal basis for making other laws. Article 9 of the Constitution provides that the “State ensure rational utilisation of the natural resources, protect are animals and plants, and prohibit any forms of encroachment and damage of the natural resources by any groups or individuals.” Article 26 provides that the “State shall protect and improve the people’s living environment and ecological environment and control pollution and other public nuisance; organize and encourage afforestation and protection of trees”.
Laws	Marine Environmental Protection Law (1982) Forest Law (1984) Grasslands Law (1985) Fishery Law (1986) Wildlife Protection Law (1988) Environmental Protection Law (1989) Water and Soil Conservation Law (1991) Law on Quarantine of Imported and Exported Animals and Plants Supplementary Rules about Punishing Crimes for Hunting Rare and Endangered Wild Animals of National Priority Protection
Administrative Regulations	Regulations about Aquatic Resources Conservation (1979) Plant Quarantine Regulations (1983) The State Council’s General Order of Strictly Protecting Rare Wild Animals (1983) Temporary Regulations on Management of Scenic Spots (1985) Regulations for the Implementation of the Forest Law (1986) Regulations for the Implementation of the Fishery Law (1987) Regulations about Control of Forest Fires (1988) Regulations about Control of Forest Pests (1989) Regulations about Seed Management (1989) Regulations about Protection and Administration of Wild Medicinal Material Resources (1987) Administrative Regulations about Prevention of Pollution and Damage of Marine Environment by Seashore Construction Projects (1983) Regulations on Afforestation in Urban Areas (1992) Regulations Regarding the Protection of Terrestrial Wild Animals (1992) Regulations for the Protection of Aquatic Wild Animals (1993) The State Council’s Decision on Further Strengthening Environmental Protection (1990) Regulations on Management of Breeding Livestock and Poultry (1994) Regulations about Nature Reserves (1994) Regulations Regarding the Nature Reserves of the P.R.C. Regulations on Protection of Wild Plants (1996) The State Council’s Decision on Several Environmental Protection Issues (1996)
Local regulations and laws	Formulated by provincial Peoples’ Congresses (autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government) and their standing committees. For example: Enforcement Regulations Regarding Management of Forests in Guangdong Province Regulations about Management of Grasslands in Inner Mongolia Provisional Rules Regarding the Protection of Rare and Endangered Wild Plants in Liaoning Province Provisional Rules Regarding Management of Wildlife in Jilin Province Regulations on Nature Reserves in Zhejiang Province
Rules	Drawn up by relevant departments in charge of the Rules of the State Council and that of provincial governments, for instance:
	SFA	Rules about Management of Nature Reserves for Forests and Wild Animals Regulations about Some Issues Concerning Strengthening Management of Forest Resources Rules for the Implementation of the Plant Quarantine Regulations
	MOA	Rules for the Implementation of the Plant Quarantine Regulations Report on Preventing Uncontrolled Collection of Hair grass and Licorice to Protect Pasture Resources
	Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation	Circular about Ceasing Purchasing and Exporting Rare Wild Animals
	SOA	Rules about Management of Marine Nature Reserves
	General Customs Administration and MOA	Circular about Strengthening Supervision and Management of Passengers Carrying Animal and Plant Specimens Abroad
	SFA and MOA	State Key Protected Species List of Wildlife
	SPC	Circular about According to Law Severely Punishing Criminals Hunting Panda and Illegally Dealing in and Smuggling Panda Hides
	SPC, the Supreme People’s Procuratorate, SFA, the Ministry of Public Security and the State Administration for Industry and Commerce	Circular Regarding Cracking Down on Crimes of Illegal Hunting, Purchasing and Selling Wild Animals

 

Table 3. Chronology of key events in the development of China's biodiversity conservation

Year	Key Events	Leading agency or Sponsoring Institution (re: table 4)	Relations with NBSAP
1979	Regulations about Aquatic Resources Conservation	MOA	Protecting aquatic resources including both freshwater and marine species
1982	Marine Environmental Protection Law	SOC	Concerning overall marine environmental protection
1983	The State Council's General Order of Strictly Protecting Rare Wild Animals	State Council	A special order of the government in protecting wildlife species especially for those endangered and rare species
1983	Plant Quarantine Regulations	MOA	Regulating quarantine issues of the state
1984	Forest Law	MOF	An overall forestry law of the state
1985	Grassland Law	MOA	An overall grassland law of the state
1985	Temporary Regulations on Management of Scenic Spots	MOC	Regulating the scenic area
1986	Fishery Law	MOA	An overall fishery law of the state
1986	National Conservation Strategy	NEPA	First approach to the national strategy for conservation as a follow-up of the World Conservation Strategy
1986	Regulations for the Implementation of the Forest Law	MOF	Detailed regulations on the implementation of the State Forest Law
1987	Regulations for the Implementation of the Fishery Law	MOA	Detailed regulations on the implementation of the State Fishery Law
1987	Regulations about Protection and Administration of Wild Medicinal Material Resources	SACTM	Regulating the wild medicinal resources of plants and animals in terms of its protection and management
1988	Wildlife Protection Law	MOF	The state law concerning protection of wildlife in China; both governmental sectors in charge of forestry and Fishery were authorized to be responsible for implementing the Law and for terrestrial and aquatic species accordingly
1988	Regulations for the Implementation of the Forest Law	MOF	Detailed regulations for implementing the Forest Law
1988	Regulations about Control of Forest Fires	MOF	Regulating the forest fire control and fighting
1989	Regulations about Seed Management	MOA	Regulations of the state concerning seeds
1989	Environmental Protection Law	SEPA	An overall state law concerning environmental protection
1989	Regulations about Control of Forest Pests	MOF	Regulating the control of forest pests
1989	State Protected Wildlife Species List	MOF, MOA	A list including fauna and flora endangered and rare species under the protection of the State Wildlife Law
1989-2000	National Plan for Afforestation 1989-2000	MOF	An overall plan on afforestation during 12 years
1990	Founding of CAS' Biodiversity Working Group	CAS	In late 1980s, the Working Group on biodiversity research was established under CAS for initiating and organizing research programmes in CAS and cooperating with other institutions
1990	The State Council's Decision on Further Strengthening Environment Protection	State Council	Stated "Governments and relevant departments at all levels are to enforece the nations's laws and regulations concerning resources and environemental protection, to strictly protect and rationally utilize natural resources, to actively develop intersectoral coordination and to strengthen resources management and ecological construction for better nature conservation".
1990	Symposium on Biological Diversity, Chinese Academy of Sciences	CAS/Dept. Bio-sci. & Bio-technol.	The first academic symposium organized by CAS' Biodiversity Working Group in 1990 with its proceedings published soon after the Symposium and widely distributed causing awareness of biodiversity conservation and research in China
1991-1996	Biodiversity Conservation Programmes in the 8th Five year Plan	CAS, SSTC., WB	Research programmes newly initiated and organized by CAS' Biodiversity Working Group in early 1990s with dozens of related institutions under CAS or other sectors involved
1991	China Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan - A GEF Project started	UNDP/UNEP/GEF and NEPA	Action planning of biodiversity conservation in China at the state level with all related sectors and institutions involved
1991	Animal and Plant Entry and Exit Quarantine law	MOA	A state law concerning quarantine issues domestically and internationally
1991	Water and Soil Conservation Law	MOWC	An overall law concerning water and soil conservation
1991	Caring for the Earth – the World Conservation Strategy prepared	IUCN	A publication with detailed explanation of the Strategy of conservation in the world
1991-2000	National Plan for Desertification Control, 1991-2000	MOF	National plan for desertification control of China
1992	Biodiversity Conservation in Forestry Action Plan	MOF	Assessed the current status and problems of forest biodiversity, made an analysis and assessment of the existing conservation policies and proposed objectives and tasks for future biodiversity conservation.
1992	UNCED (Rio Conference)	UN	United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio, 1992; a governmental delegation from China attended the Conference
1992	Publication of: Biodiversity in China -- Status and Conservation Needs	Biod. Comm./CAS	A brief introduction to the status of biodiversity in China with key recommendations for conservation; scientific background documentation for UNCED
1992	Establishment of China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development (CCICED)	State Council	A senior advisory body founded since 1992 involving members from China and inter-national community for observing, evaluating and advising China in environmental protection in harmony with sustainable development; a new approach from the open policy of the government and follow-up the spirits from UNCED
1992	Publication of: China Plant Red Data Book - Rare and Endangered Plants	Institute of Botany, CAS,	A compilation of rare and endangered species of wild flora
1992	Action Plan of Marine Biodiversity Conservation in China	SOA	A follow-up action plan specifically for conserving the marine biodiversity in China; a number of recommendations were raised including further investigation and inventory, survey of key taxa and sea areas, nature reserves and monitoring network, etc.
1992	Regulations on Afforestation in Urban Areas	MOF	Regulating the afforestation issues in urban areas
1992	Regulations Regardig the Protection of Terrestrial Wild Animals	MOF	Detailed regulations on protection measures and procedures of wild terrestrial animal species under the Wildlife Protection Law
1993	Regulations for the Protection of Aquatic Wild Animals	MOA	Detailed regulations on protection measures and procedures of wild aquatic animal species under the Wildlife Protection Law
1993	Plan for ex-situ conservation of giant pandas	MOC	It elaborated on the history and status quo of captive herding giant pandas as well as the purpose and significance of giant panda conservation. It also discussed the urgency and necessity of the ex-situ conservation of giant pandas and made a detailed implementing plan.
1993Feb8-12	Establishment of Biodiversity Working Group (BWG)/CCICED	CCICED	One of the six earliest working groups established under the CCICED since its foundation, with both Chinese and international experts involved and targeted in reviewing, evaluating and recommending key issues and proposals to the government in the field of biodiversity conservation
1993-1998	National Program for Environmental Protection	NEPA	It proposed to strengthen the overall supervision and management of nature reserves, organized the implementation of BAP, established a rule for restoring ecological damages within a given time and set standards for ecological recovery.
1993	Action Plan for Agriculture Biodiversity Conservation	MOA	An attempt of action planning for agro-biodiversity conservation and utilization initiated as a follow-up of the national Biodiversity Action Plan; stating the agricultural eco-systems, crop and domesticated animals germplasm resources and aquatic products resources, etc.
1993	Administrative Regulations about Prevention of Pollution and Damage of Marine Environment by Seashore Construction Projects	SOA	Regulating pollution and damage of marine area caused by development projects along with the seashore
1994	Regulations about Nature Reserves	NEPA	Regulating measures and procedures for nature reserves
1994	China’s Agenda 21 for Environmental Protection	NEPA	Reviewed past development, analyzed current problems and proposed the goal and action plan for the 1990’s and early next century from the aspects of policy directions, legal construction institution building, environmental education and publicity, nature conservation, urban and rural environment protection, industrial pollution prevention and control, environmental monitoring, environmental science and technology and international cooperation and exchange in the field of environment. [RUN-SENTENCE AND I AM NOT SURE HOW TO CHANGE THIS]
1994	National Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan adopted and issued by the government	State Council	The NBCAP was Officially issued and published in both Chinese and English versions
1994	China Agenda 21 adopted by government	State Council
1995	Ninth Five-year Plan and Plan for the Agricultural Environment Conservation for 2010	MOA	Its major points include the conservation and sustainable utilization of genetic resources, construction and management of nature reserves, development of ecological agriculture and agriculture environmental monitoring.
1995	Forestry Action Plan for China’s Agenda 21	MOF	It put forward the overall strategic goal and measures for forestry development in China and outlined the blueprint for the forestry development in the new century, so it becomes one of the guiding documents for mid-term and long-term development of forestry in China
1995	Ninth Five-year Plan and Planning for 2010 for Chinese Medicine	Traditional Chinese Medicine Department	It promoted the advanced breeding or production techniques to those medicinal production bases so as to increase the quality and quantity of medicine and to exploit reasonably Chinese medicinal resources for biodiversity conservation. It also strengthened the education and publicity on the policy of conservation and sustainable utilization of Chinese medicinal resources; to foster more specialized personnel; to popularize the basic knowledge of biodiversity and increase the public participation in protecting natural resources.
1995-1996	Action Plan of Conservation and Management of Mangrove Ecosystems in China	SOA	It strengthened the construction system and mechanism for protecting and managing mangrove ecological system, and strengthened the conservation of mangroves. It also carried out sustainable utilization of mangrove ecological systems.
1996	Regulations on Protection of Wild Plants
1996	The State Council's Decision on Several Environmental Protection Issues
1996	China Ocean Agenda 21	SOA	This Agenda touches upon marine nature conservation in the following aspects: 1) construction and management of marine nature reserves and special protected areas; 2) marine biodiversity conservation; 3) marine environmental protection.
1996	Publication of : A Biodiversity Review of China by John MacKinnon et al.	WWF
1996-2050	National Planning for Forest Ecological Construction	MOF	It proposed the guiding principle, strategic goal and key project distribution for planning and made investment estimates, benefit analysis and a prospectus for plan implementation on the basis of analysis of the status of the land ecological issues and forest ecological construction
1996	National Ninth Five-year Plan for Forestry and Long-term Program for 2010	MOF	It put forward the guiding principle, basic policy, goal, tasks and strategic layout for forestry development on the basis of analysis of main problems in the forestry sector and outstanding contradictions and future favorable conditions for forestry development. The main measures were also worked out for implementing this plan and program. The plan and goal made in this document are a special demonstration of the goal and content in the Forestry Action Plan for China’s Agenda 21 and will provide guidance for forestry development before 2010 in terms of the sustainable development goal and actions.
1996	4th National Environment Protection Congress	State Council
1996	Publicaiton of: Biodiversity Action Plan in the Department of Agriculture	MOA
1996-2010	China Development Planning Program of Marine Nature Reserves	SOA	Its major actions were to: 1) formulate the planning and principles for selecting and building marine nature reserves, and make them represent the feature of natural scenery and marine biodiversity in the Chinese marine area, which covers 3 climatic zone; 2) Draw up a management plan requiring that different management rules, regulations and measures should be formulated in accordance with the real situation of different nature reserve; 3) Make a research and publicity plan, to finish the basic survey and zoning of resources and environment in all the marine nature reserves during the “Ninth Five-year Plan” period, carry out research on key protected species, conduct sample management demonstrations, finish staff training, and establish publicity and education institutions.
1996-2000	China Trans-century Green Projects Plan	NEPA in collaboration with SPC and SETC	There are nearly 1600 projects for the first phase (1996-2000) which were designed to tackle the key environmental problems in key regions and facilitate the implementation of some international environmental agreements. Many of related to biodiversity conservation.
1997	Publication of Conserving China's Biodiversity	BWG/CCICED	Collection of reports and selected papers by Biodiversity Working Group of CCICED (Phase I)
1997	China Joining IUCN as a State Member	State Council and MOFA	A new landmark of international cooperation in conservation and sharing responsibilities of the world conservation
1998	Publication of: China's Biodiversity: A Country Study	SEPA	An UNEP project with an overview of biodiversity status in China
1998-9	Publication of: China Red Data Books - Mammals, Birds, Herps, Fishes	NEPA, CAS	Compilation of the latest information and data concerning endangered species of vertebrates in China and scientific background for action planning and implementation of domestic laws and international treaties
1999	Publication of: Conserving the World's Biodiversity (Chinese version)	Biod. Comm./CAS	An attempt of communicating the international progress of conservation with the public in China
1999	BWG's Key Recommendations to China's 10th Five-year Plan	CCICED	By summarizing the findings from BWG/CCICED's activities to seven key recommendations to the government for consideration into 10th five-year planning in the light of biodiversity conservation and sustainable development
2000--2001	GEF/UNDP/UNEP NBSAP-NECA	UNDP -- CAS -- BWG/CCICED	Sponsored by GEF/UNDP/UNEP and executed by CAS, an international project aimed at evaluating and exchanging lessons learnt from the national biodiversity strategy and action planning in NE & C Asia region
1995-2001	Nature Reserve Management Programme (MOF)	UNDP/WB/GEF	A GEF project sponsored by MOF in China for improving the conservation and management of reserves in forested area and wetland
	Plan for the Centralized Conservation of Urban Rare Flora Species	MOC	With botanical gardens as its base, the plan aims to establish collection and protection centers for botanical plants in major botanical gardens across China, selecting priority species for conservation in the light of local characteristics and preserving the rich diversity of rare botanical plant species.
1991-1992	Inter-governmental Negotiation on CBD	MoFA, NEPA	Sponsored by MoFA and NEPA, Chinese delegation actively involved in the conferences of inter-governmental negotiation on the formulation of the CBD Draft
1996-	Conservation Plan for South China Tiger (Pathera tigris amoyensis)	MOC	Planning to ensure the sustained existence of Panthera tigris amoyensis. Major actions taken are adoption of measures to prevent the catching and killing of this tiger, establishment of nature reserves to protect its living environment, study of its habits and characteristics and plan for its artificial propagation.
2000-2004	the Biodiversity Protection and Sustainable Use of Wetlands in China	SFA	This project is to protect the wetland biodiversity of international importance in the project region. It will lay stress on solving the threats faced by the wetland biodiversity in the project region especially the demonstration region, so as to promote the sustainable development of the wetlands and periphery areas, and strengthen the wetland protection at different levels from the Center to the localities and the competence construction of the management institutions.
1998	Action Plan for Implementing the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification	MOF	Planning of Implementing the Convention to Combat Desertifivation

 

Table 4. Key to abbreviations of agencies and organizations mentioned in the text

Abbre-viation	English Name	Country	Umbrella Organization
BAP	Biodiversity Action Plan	China
BSAP	Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan.
BWG/ CCICED	CCICED Biodiversity Working Group	China
BWG / CAS	Biodiversity Working Group of Chinese Academy of Sciences (now as Biodiversity Committee/CAS)	China
CAS	Chinese Academy of Sciences (Academia Sinica)	China
CBCF	China Biodiversity Conservation fund	China
CBD	Convention on Biological Diversity	Int'l convention with Secretariat in Montreal, Canada	UNEP
CCICED	China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development	China	State Council
CITES	Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (Endangered Species Convention)	Int'l convention with Secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland	UNEP
COP 4	CBD's 4th Conference of Parties	International Conference	CBD
CPC	China People's Congress	China
GEF	Global Environmental Facility	Int'l organization	UNDP
IUCN	International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources -- The World Conservation Union	Int'l organization with HQ in Switzerland
MOA	Ministry of Agriculture	China	State Council
MOC	Ministry of Construction	China	State Council
MOF	Ministry of Forestry (now as State Forestry Administration)	China	State Council
MOFA	Ministry of Foreign Affairs	China	State Council
NBAP	National Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan	China	State Council
NBSAP	National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan
NEPA	National Environment Protection Agency (now as State Environment Protection Administration)	China	State Council
NGO	Non-governmental Organization
RAMSAR	Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat	With Secretariat based in Switzerland	UN
SATCM	State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine	China	State Council
SEPA	State Environmental Protection Administration	China	State Council
SCEPC	State Council Environmental Protection Committee	China	State Council
SDPC	State Development and Planning Commission	China	State Council
SFA	State Forestry Administration	China	State Council
SOA	State Oceanic Administration	china	State Council
SPC	Supreme People's Court	China	State Council
SSTC	State Science and Technology Commission (now as Ministry of Sciences and Technology)	China	State Council
UN	United Nations	Based in New York	UN
UNCED	United Nations Conference on Environment and Development	Held in Rio, Brazil in 1992	UN
UNDP	United Nations Development Programme	HQ based in New York	UN
UNEP	United Nations Environment Programme	HQ Secretariat based in Nairobi, Kenya	UN
UNESCO	United Nations Education, Science and Culture Organization	HQ based in Paris	UN
WB	World Bank	HQ based in Washington, DC	Inter-governmental
WCMC	World Conservation Moritoring Centre	HQ based in UK	International NGO
WCS	Wildlife Conservation Society	Int'l organization with HQ in New York	New York Zoological Society
WWF	World Wildlife Fund	Int'l organization with HQ in Switzerland	Non-govern-mental
WHC	Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention)	Secretariat based in Paris	UNESCO

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